ABOUT PROSOCIAL
STEP ONE: ACCEPTANCE & COMMITMENT TRAINING
​
Acceptance and Commitment Training (ACT) is a powerful method for increasing flexibility and selecting actions that lead toward valued goals. It was developed primarily for individuals but can be equally useful for groups. PROSOCIAL uses an especially fast version of ACT called the Matrix.
The Matrix is a space divided into four quadrants. The lower half refers to thoughts, feelings, and emotions that take place in our heads. The upper half refers to objects and actions that take place in the world. The way that we act in the world depends upon what is in our heads. The right half of the Matrix refers to mental events and actions that take us toward our valued goals. The left half refers to mental events and actions that take us away from our valued goals.
During Step One, group members are introduced to ACT and
The ACT (Acceptance and Commitment Training) Matrix.
take two “spins” (reflecting upon each quadrant in turn) through the Matrix, first as an individual and then as a group. The Matrix is designed to be used repeatedly, but even the first two spins can create a stronger sense of identity and purpose and more flexibility for working toward valued goals.
THE PROSOCIAL TRAINING METHOD
PROSOCIAL training is a fast method that can take place during a single 2-day retreat or as three meetings with a little homework between meetings. The meetings can be face-to-face or can take place online. The group is led through the method by a trained facilitator. Data is captured throughout the method, which enables group members to know with confidence whether the method is working. The data is added to a multi-group database so that the PROSOCIAL development team can further improve its own ability to improve the efficacy of groups and wellbeing of their members. By the end of the method, groups will have:
• A stronger sense of identity and purpose;
​
• More flexibility for working toward valued goals;
​
• Greater awareness of the Core Design Principles (CDPs) and an assessment of the CDPs for their group;
​
• Awareness of Auxiliary Design Principles (ADPs) that are needed in addition to the CDPs; and
• Short-term actionable goals that can take the group, step-by-step, toward its long-term goals.
​
PROSOCIAL is not a one-shot intervention. Our groups are encouraged to continue working with us over the long term and to join a community of other PROSOCIAL groups.
STEP TWO: THE CORE DESIGN PRINCIPLES
No matter what their specific objective, nearly all groups require a number of “Core Design Principles (CDP)” to coordinate action, avoid disruptive behaviors among group members, and cultivate appropriate relationships with other groups in a multi-group ecosystem. During the second step of PROSOCIAL, group members learn about the CDPs and independently evaluate their group with respect to four questions: 1) How important is each CDP for the group? 2) How well does the group currently understand each CDP? 3) How well is each CDP currently implemented? 4) How much has the group been handicapped by failing to implement each CDP? Each group member is also asked to nominate Auxiliary Design Principles (ADPs) that are important for their group, in addition to the CDPs that are needed by all groups.
​
The individual evaluations are aggregated into a report that is discussed by the group with the help of the coordinator. The report can be regarded as like a medical exam that indicates what aspects of the group are healthy and what other aspects need attention. Just as individuals need regular checkups, PROSOCIAL groups are encouraged to evaluate the CDPs at regular intervals for their long-term health.
STEP THREE: SHORT-TERM MEASURABLE GOALS
Step One of PROSOCIAL provides the start of an action plan with the upper right quadrant of the Matrix. Step Two provides a more detailed action plan for implementing the CDPs. In Step Three, group
members formulate short term measurable goals that take the group in a step-by-step fashion towards its valued long-term goals (“True North”), often improving implementation of the CDPs and ACDs along the way. Step Three enables the group to “hit the ground running” at the completion of the training course.
JOINING THE PROSOCIAL COMMUNITY
PROSOCIAL is designed to produce substantial—and measurable—benefits over the short term. In addition, we hope to work with groups over the long term to help them implement the Design Principles and otherwise to achieve their valued goals. We also plan to create a PROSOCIAL ecosystem where groups can learn from and provide support for each other. An important insight of PROSOCIAL is that the CDPs are scale-independent and apply to relationships among groups in addition to relationships among individuals within groups. It is not an exaggeration to say that PROSOCIAL can improve the quality of life on a regional and worldwide basis if its principles become sufficiently widely practiced.
THE ORIGINS OF PROSOCIAL
by David Sloan Wilson
A turning point in my life came when I decided to study prosociality in the real world. The very word “prosocial” is used mostly by egghead professors such as myself and is unfamiliar to the average Joe. Microsoft Word doesn’t even recognize it as a word and keeps telling me that I have misspelled something. Nevertheless, it is a very useful word that deserves to be on everyone’s lips. Perhaps PROSOCIAL, the practical method for working with groups that resulted from my odyssey, will make that happen.
​
The word “prosocial” refers to anything—such as an attitude, belief, behavior, or institution—that is oriented toward the welfare of others or society as a whole. It includes but goes beyond the word “altruism”, which implies that helping others requires a degree of self-sacrifice. The word “prosocial” is agnostic on that point. If it’s possible to do well for oneself by doing good, then so much the better.
​
​
David Sloan Wilson talks with members of a neighborhood group in Binghamton, NY accompanied by Steven C. Hayes, co-founder of ACT, and Kevin Polk, designer of the matrix, during the original PROSOCIAL development meeting in April 2013.
My passion as an egghead professor was to show how prosocial behaviors can evolve in a Darwinian world. Since natural selection favors individuals that survive and reproduce better than other individuals, it’s hard to see how prosocial behaviors (especially of the altruistic variety) can evolve. Yet, prosocial individuals can win the Darwinian contest if they confine their interactions to each other and avoid the depredations of more self-serving individuals. Darwin himself began this line of reasoning and I was carrying the same torch into the 21st century. It was a Big Idea with implications throughout the biological and human-related sciences. I could have spent my entire life inside the Ivory Tower.
​
What kicked me out of the Ivory Tower was my desire to study the eternal contest between prosocial behaviors (call them High-Pro) and more self-oriented behaviors (call them Low-Pro) playing out in the real world. Working with the superintendent of the Binghamton City School District, a wonderful woman named Peggy Wozniak, I was able to measure individual differences in prosociality in several thousand high school students. I was also able to measure the social support that these students received from their families, neighborhoods, school, churches, and extracurricular activities. Finally, I was able to tag all of this information to the residential location of the students, sticking to rigorous human subject research protocols of course.
​
Unsurprisingly, individual differences in prosociality resembled a bell-shaped curve, with a few extremely High-Pros, a few extremely Low-Pros, and most people in between. The most important result of the study was a high correlation (about 0.7) between the prosociality of the individual and the prosociality of the individual’s social environment. Very simply, those who gave also tended to receive, which is the basic requirement for prosocial behaviors to survive in a Darwinian world.
​
As with all statistical correlations, there were exceptions to the rule. Some people on the High-Pro side of the bell curve gave without getting and some on the Low-Pro side got without giving. However, the High-Pros were able to benefit from each other enough to offset the occasional depredation of Low-Pros. That was the meaning of the high correlation between the prosociality of the individual and the prosociality of the individual’s social environment.
​
Lest you think that Low-Pros are bad people, imagine that you are a High-Pro with the bad luck of being surrounded by Low-Pros. What are your options? First, you can try to leave if you can. Second, you can try to convert your Low-Pro partners into High-Pros. Third, you can defensively turn off your own prosociality, in which case you will become a Low-Pro, at least for the time being. Fourth, you can remain a High-Pro and suffer the consequences. While the low end of the bell curve might include some social predators, it also includes people who have defensively switched their prosociality to the “off” position under conditions that would probably make us do the same. Have sympathy for the Low-Pro. What’s needed for them and for everyone is to provide a social environment that makes it safe to be a High-Pro, which is exactly what PROSOCIAL strives to do.
​
The maps of the city of Binghamton that emerged from this research were riveting to the eye. They showed a mosaic of patches representing neighborhoods in which most of the students were High-Pro (dark) or Low-Pro (light).
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
On a scale where an individual can score between 0 and 100 on prosociality, neighborhoods could differ by as many as 50 points. To me, these maps looked a lot like the distribution maps of a species such as a plant—dark patches where it is abundant and light patches where it is rare. If we were conservation biologists who wanted to increase the abundance of the species, we would reason that the light patches lack the right growth conditions for the plant and we would work to provide the growth conditions. The maps were helping me to see that a human behavioral strategy such as prosociality is like a biological species. It has a “distribution and abundance” in modern life based on selection pressures. True, what’s evolving is not genes but behavioral options in flexible individuals, but the evolutionary dynamics are much the same.
​
Once I completed this first study I was hooked. Studying prosociality in the real world was all I wanted to do. I proudly called my new line of research the Binghamton Neighborhood Project. Then two things happened in rapid order. First, I began to meet other scientists who had been playing this game a lot longer than I had. Second, I had the opportunity to create a think tank that would enable me to play the game anywhere in the world, not just my hometown of Binghamton, New York.
​
The scientists I came to know included Tony Biglan, Steve Hayes, and Dennis Embry. They hailed from disciplines that I had never heard of before, such as Prevention Science and Contextual Behavioral Science. Whatever they called themselves, they and their colleagues were very good at “evolving” prosociality in the real world at scales ranging from individuals (e.g., psychotherapy), small groups (e.g., school classrooms), and large populations (e.g., the campaign against smoking). At first I wondered if I had anything to offer, but they were as excited by my evolutionary perspective as I was by their practical accomplishments. We began to refer to ourselves affectionately as The Four Amigos.
​
The invitation to create a think tank came from Jerry Lieberman, a retired political scientist and lifelong humanist who wanted to create a science-based think tank and was persuaded by my book Evolution for Everyone that it should be informed by evolutionary theory. The first few
years of the Evolution Institute were like a roller coaster. Our first major donor was Bernard Winograd, a top executive of the Prudential Corporation at the time who has since sadly passed away. When the financial crisis of 2008 hit, Bernard prompted me to begin rethinking economics from an evolutionary perspective, which continues to this day (you can read all about it on Evonomics.com, which was started with the help of the Evolution Institute). As part of that adventure, I met Elinor Ostrom just before she won the Nobel prize in economics in 2009 and another key piece of PROSOCIAL fell into place.
​
Lin, as she insisted everyone should call her, received the prize for showing that groups of people are able to manage resources such as forests, pastures, fisheries, and irrigation systems—but only if the groups possess certain core design principles. Conventional economic wisdom held that these resources are vulnerable to “the tragedy of the commons”—since every member of the group is tempted to take more than their fair share—and that the only solutions were to privatize the resource (if possible) or impose top-down regulation. The fact that real-world groups could manage their own affairs was so astounding to the economics profession that it merited their highest honor.
​
I was somewhat familiar with Lin’s work before we met, but when I paid closer attention I realized how much her core design principles dovetailed with my work on prosociality. Very simply, a group that strongly implements the core design principles provides a safe and secure environment for the expression of prosociality, making it difficult to behave as a Low-Pro and get away with it. Moreover, nearly all groups whose members must work together to achieve common goals should benefit from the core design principles—not just the kinds of groups that Lin studied. From the time I met her in 2009 until her death from cancer in 2012, I worked with Lin and her postdoctoral associate Michael Cox to integrate her core design principle approach with evolutionary theory, resulting in an academic article titled “Generalizing the Core Design Principles for the Efficacy of Groups”, which was published in 2013. The opportunity to collaborate with Lin was one of the peak experiences of my life.
The original version of Elinor Ostrom's design principles for common-pool resource groups
Another thing that struck me about the core design principles, apart from their generality, was their practicality.
They seemed to offer a blueprint that real-world groups could use to improve their performance. The blueprint didn’t specify how the core design principles should be implemented. That might depend a lot on local circumstances and the type of group. But the blueprint did specify that the core design principles should be implemented. I began to think about how I could help members of a group learn about the core design principles, evaluate their group with respect to the core design principles, and then take steps to better implement the core design principles as they saw fit. That was the seed that grew into PROSOCIAL.
​
Years before PROSOCIAL existed as an Internet platform and network of facilitators, I began to use the core design principles to “evolve” prosociality in my hometown of Binghamton. Separate projects involved neighborhood
The generalized form of the design principles, derived by Wilson, Ostrom, and Cox
associations, schools, and churches. Through the Evolution Institute, I began to conduct research on business groups and intentional communities. These projects affirmed the generality of the core design principles for all sorts of groups. They also revealed the challenges of attempting to implement the core design principles in real-world situations. It’s not just a matter of learning about them—after all, they are very easy to understand. The reason that the core design principles are not implemented more widely is because they are often resisted by people who don’t want to share power or whose interests crosscut the interests of the group.
​
One of our greatest achievements, and also one of our greatest disappointments, was a “school within a school” for 9th and 10th grade students in the Binghamton City High School who had flunked most of
their classes during the previous year and would be very likely to drop out before graduating. With a small staff provided by Peggy Wozniak and one of my graduate students named Rick Kauffman playing a large role, we used the core design principles (and two auxiliary principles important for the context of teaching) as a blueprint for organizing the school. We also used a randomized control design–the gold standard for scientific assessment–by recruiting twice as many students than we could accommodate. Half were randomly chosen to enter the program and the other half experienced the normal high school routine. One year later, not only did the students in our program vastly outperform the comparison group on the state-mandated exams that everyone took, but they even performed on a par with the average Binghamton high school student. There were also gains in non-academic student wellbeing. Here was strong evidence that the core design principles approach could “evolve” prosociality even in the toughest of circumstances.
That was the achievement. The disappointment came when Peggy retired and the new school superintendent terminated the program, trusting her own judgment more than our numbers. This was a massive violation of design principles three (concerning decision-making) and seven (concerning local autonomy), but there was nothing we could do about it. Several years later, she was removed by a unanimous decision of the school board. Her dictatorial style had been ruinous for the whole school system, not just our program. It’s people like that who make it difficult to implement the core design principles.
​
Some of our other projects were put on hold when a supportive progressive mayor was replaced by a less supportive conservative mayor. These disappointments taught me by experience what I already knew theoretically: The same core design principles are needed at all levels of a multi-tier social hierarchy. If they are lacking at a higher level, such as the school system or city administration, then they are likely to be disrupted at a lower level, such as a school program or a neighborhood association. Design principles seven and eight address the relationship between any given group and the multi-group “ecosystem” that it inhabits.
​
Based in part on these regrettable experiences, I began to pursue a dream that had occurred to me earlier—a way to work with an unlimited number of groups without requiring the permission of higher ups. PROSOCIAL is a realization of that dream.
I have discovered to my pleasure that I can study prosociality in the real world while keeping one foot in the Ivory Tower. PROSOCIAL doubles as a scientific database in addition to providing a practical method for working with real-world groups. Thanks to our scientific orientation, we will advance basic knowledge and improve our own ability to work with real-world groups as the project develops
​
I’ve come a long way from the start of my scientific odyssey and there is still a long way to go. I look forward to continuing my journey in the company of a growing community of PROSOCIAL users.
THE SCIENCE BEHIND PROSOCIAL
Elinor Ostrom working in the field with a common-pool resource group managing an irrigation system.
PROSOCIAL is informed by three areas of science. The idea that groups require core design principles to function well is inspired by the work of Elinor Ostrom (1933-2012), a political scientist who studied groups that attempt to manage resources such as fields, forests, fisheries, and water for irrigation. These are called common-pool resources (CPR) because they must be shared by groups of people and cannot easily be privatized. They are vulnerable to a problem called “the tragedy of the commons” by the ecologist Garrett Hardin in a classic article published in Science magazine in 1968. Hardin imagined a village with a common pasture that could used by all of the villagers. He noted that each villager had an incentive to add more of their own livestock, even though the pasture might become overgrazed as a result. Working with a worldwide database of information on CPR groups that she helped to create, Ostrom showed that they are able to avoid the tragedy of the commons if they possess certain core design principles. Her results were so contrary to conventional economic wisdom that Ostrom was awarded the Nobel Prize in economics in 2009 for her achievement.
​
The second area of science informing PROSOCIAL is evolutionary theory. Many thousands of species live in groups and all of them face the same
problem as far as the evolution of cooperation is concerned. Cooperation requires group members to coordinate their activities and provide services for each other. These “altruistic” or “solid citizen” behaviors are vulnerable to exploitation by individuals who accept social benefits without providing them to others. Special conditions are required for cooperation to evolve despite its selective disadvantage within groups, which correspond closely to the
core design principles identified by Ostrom for human CPR groups. David Sloan Wilson is an evolutionary scientist who specializes in the study of cooperation and altruism. He worked with Ostrom and her associate Michael Cox to generalize her core design principles approach in two respects: First, by showing that they follow from the evolutionary dynamics of cooperation in all species and our own evolutionary history as a highly cooperative species. Second, because they apply to all forms of cooperation, they apply to a much wider diversity of human groups than CPR groups. Almost any group of people attempting to work together to achieve common goals can benefit from the core design principles. Wilson,
A wolf pack, an example of a highly cooperative animal group.
Ostrom and Cox’s collaboration resulted in an article titled “Generalizing the Core Design Principles for the Efficacy of Groups”, which was published in the Journal of Economic and Behavior Organization in 2013 and provides part of the scientific foundation for PROSOCIAL.
Kevin Polk, designer of the Matrix, teaches the ACT portion of PROSOCIAL.
The third area of science informing PROSOCIAL is called Contextual Behavioral Science (CBS), which includes methods for accomplishing positive behavioral change in individuals (Behavioral, Cognitive, and Mindfulness-based therapy), groups (Industrial and Organizational Psychology) and whole populations (Prevention Science). At the same time that Wilson was collaborating with Ostrom and Cox, he was working with major figures in CBS such as Steven C. Hayes, who helped to found a therapeutic method called Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT, pronounced as one word), and Anthony Biglan, past president of the Society for Prevention
Research. They and some of their associates became excited about creating a practical framework for improving the efficacy of groups based on an integration of the core design principles approach and their science-based methods for accomplishing positive behavioral change. One outcome of this collaboration is an article titled “Evolving the Future: Toward a Science of Intentional Change, which was published in the journal Behavioral and Brain Sciences in 2014 and provides another part of the scientific foundation for PROSOCIAL.
​
In addition to these scientific collaborations, three institutions have contributed to the creation of PROSOCIAL. The first and primary institution is the Evolution Institute, a think tank co-founded by Wilson that formulates public policy from an evolutionary perspective. The second is the Association for Contextual Behavioral Science (ACBS), a society co-founded by Steven C. Hayes that now numbers over 7000 members worldwide, some of whom can serve as coaches for PROSOCIAL groups. The third is New Harbinger Publications, which publishes evidence-based professional and self-help books, and its affiliated company Praxis, which organizes continuing education and training events in CBS. Over a period of five years, the Evolution Institute and ACBS have applied the “core design principles” approach to real-world settings as diverse as urban neighborhoods, schools, churches, businesses, intentional communities, hospitals, and even villages in the African nation of Sierra Leone to help them cope with the Ebola epidemic.
PROSOCIAL MANAGEMENT TEAM
PAUL ATKINS
​
Paul is a board endorsed Organisational Psychologist who works in both academia and industry. He teaches organisational and behavioural psychology at the School of Psychology, Australian Catholic University, as well as coordinating the Master of Clinical Counselling program. He is a registered psychologist with a PhD in Psychology from Cambridge University. He regularly teaches mindfulness-based courses and uses ProSocial in his executive coaching of staff from a wide variety of organisations. He works with members of the Institute for Positive Psychology and Education (ACU) on a range of projects exploring the impacts of mindfulness and values-based living on upon identity, perspective taking and relationships. He is an Associate Editor for the Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science and has just completed a book for Cambridge University Press on the use of mindfulness training in organizations. He has a particular interest in enhancing cooperation in school, organizational and community groups through the application of ProSocial.
ANTHONY BIGLAN
​
Tony is a Senior Scientist at Oregon Research Institute. He has been conducting research on the development and prevention of child and adolescent problem behavior for the past 30 years. He is a former president of the Society for Prevention Research. He has conducted numerous experimental evaluations of interventions to prevent tobacco use both through school-based programs and community-wide interventions. And, he has evaluated interventions to prevent high-risk sexual behavior, antisocial behavior, and reading failure. In recent years, his work has shifted to more comprehensive interventions that have the potential to prevent the entire range of child and adolescent problems. He was a member of the Institute of Medicine Committee on Prevention, which released its report in 2009 documenting numerous evidence-based preventive interventions that can prevent multiple problems. His recent review of preventive interventions concluded that diverse psychological, behavioral, and health problems can be prevented through the promotion of nurturing families, schools, and communities.
JOSEPH CIARROCHI
​
Joe is Professor of Psychology at the Institute of Positive Psychology and Education, at the Australian Catholic University. He is an active researcher with numerous national competitive grants. He studies resilience, the individual characteristics that help you to deal flexibly with setbacks and lead a healthy, productive, and fulfilling life. He as an expert at promoting resilience, using Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and Positive Psychology . Professor Ciarrochi has over 100 international journal articles, books, and book chapters and is regularly invited to speak at conferences and leading universities and institutions around the world. He currently has over 1 million dollars in competitive funding to investigate the causes of well-being and interpersonal effectiveness.
BEATE EBERT
​
Beate is a clinical psychologist and behavioral psychotherapist, working in private practice in Aschaffenburg, Germany. She is a peer reviewed trainer in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and she is providing trainings and lectures in Germany and internationally. She is a founding member and chairperson of the German ACBS Chapter, DGKV. In 2010, along with friends and colleagues, she founded commit and act, a non-profit organization to provide psychosocial support in Sierra Leone and other areas of conflict. The commit and act team has successfully used the PROSOCIAL approach for behavior change in the Ebola crisis and to reduce gender based violence in families in Sierra Leone. Beate also started to use PROSOCIAL for the integration of immigrants in Germany.
STEVEN C. HAYES
​
Steve is Nevada Foundation Professor and Director of Clinical Training in the Department of Psychology at the University of Nevada. His career has focused on an analysis of the nature of human language and cognition and the application of this to the understanding and alleviation of human suffering and the promotion of human growth. He developed "Acceptance and Commitment Therapy," a powerful therapy method, that is useful in a wide variety of areas. His popular book "Get Out of Your Mind and Into Your Life" was featured in Time Magazine among several other major media outlets and for a time was the number one best selling self-help book in the United States. His work has been recognized by several awards including the Impact of Science on Application award from the Society for the Advancement of Behavior Analysis, and the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapy.
ALAN HONICK
​
Alan is the project coordinator for PROSOCIAL. He is also a documentary filmmaker, whose work has focused primarily on environmental issues, winning awards for journalism, photography, and editing. His documentaries have been broadcast on PBS stations nationwide, and educational versions of his films have been distributed to schools internationally. Several years ago he began shifting his focus to what he considers the problem that underlies environmental, and for that matter, nearly all human conflict — differing perceptions of fairness. He began to investigate the human sense of fairness from an evolutionary perspective, and his research eventually led to the work of Elinor Ostrom, and her design principles for common-pool resource groups, which he considers a practical blueprint for implementing fairness within a group. At the same time, some of his multimedia work on fairness was published in This View of Life, the online magazine of the Evolution Institute. This led to an invitation to participate in the initial planning session for PROSOCIAL. He is currently producing informational and training videos for PROSOCIAL, as well as helping to manage its growth into an effective worldwide organization that can bring more fairness to every aspect of life on the planet.
KIMAN LUCAS
​
Kiman has over 30 years of executive management and general counsel experience in international business and development. She spent several years as Executive Director of Clear Path International --- a nonprofit that provided support for civilian war victims and organizations that served them with offices/projects in Afghanistan, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar. She previously served as General Counsel for several companies including Classmates Online (social network), M2E Power (alternative energy), Cordance/Intermind (online identity management), Phorm/121 Media (social network), and other technology, software and media companies. She was General Counsel for several years for PATH, an international public health NGO headquartered in Seattle. She was also a Senior Legal Officer with the Office of Legal Counsel within the World Health Organization in Geneva, Switzerland and helped found The Concept Foundation in Bangkok, Thailand. Kiman earned her B.A. in International Relations and has a Doctor of Jurisprudence from Northwestern School of Law. Ms. Lucas currently lives on Bainbridge Island in Washington State and travels extensively for projects and pleasure.
DAVID SLOAN WILSON
​
David is president of the Evolution Institute and SUNY Distinguished Professor of Biology and Anthropology of Binghamton University, part of the State University of New York. He has made foundational contributions to evolutionary theory and to the study of evolution in relation to human affairs. He is widely credited for reviving and developing the theory of multi-level selection, which provides a framework for studying the evolution of prosociality in all species. His collaboration with Elinor Ostrom prior to her death in 2012 provides the theoretical foundation for the PROSOCIAL project. He has also applied the design principles approach to real-world groups in schools (Wilson, Kauffman and Purdy 2011) and neighborhoods (Wilson 2011; Wilson, Marshall, and Iserhott 2011).